Prostate cancer is one of the most common forms of cancer in men (second only to skin cancer). It is estimated that in the United States (U.S.), there will be more than 192,000 new cases and 27,000 deaths from prostate cancer in 2009. In recent decades, there has been an increase in the incidence rate of prostate cancer, but doctors are making progress in early detection treatment, and survival rates are improving. From 1991 to 2006, there has been a 40% decrease in the prostate cancer mortality rate in the U.S. and a similar trend in other Westernized countries where early detection and effective treatment are widely practiced.
What happens under normal conditions?
The prostate gland is an essential part of the male reproductive system. It is approximately the size of a walnut and is located between the bladder and the penis, surrounding the top part of the urethra (the tube that carries seminal fluid and urine from the bladder out through the penis). The prostate is responsible for the production of semen, the milky white substance that nourishes the sperm. Semen is a mixture of sperm cells from the testicles, fluid from the seminal vesicles (small pouches attached to the prostate gland that store seminal fluid), and prostate fluid secreted by small glands inside the prostate called "acini." What is prostate cancer?
Prostate cancer is a malignancy that usually arises in the glands and ducts of the prostate. It occurs when the normal process of cell growth within these structures becomes uncontrolled. This results in the development of nests or masses of cancerous cells referred to as a malignant prostate tumor. As with many cancers, the cause of prostate cancer is unknown, but, like all cancers, both genetic and environmental factors and their interactions are important in the development and progression of this disease. Prostate cancer is more common as men age, in African-American men, and in men with a family history of the disease. Its growth is also affected by male sex hormones (growth is stimulated by male hormones and suppressed by lack of male hormones). In U.S. men, the overall lifetime risk of being diagnosed with prostate cancer is 1 in 6. Thanks to widespread knowledge about prostate cancer that has resulted in increased efforts at early detection (prostate cancer screening), in the U.S, about 90 percent of the men who are diagnosed with prostate cancer have a tumor that seems to be confined to the prostate and is therefore curable. Prostate cancer that is localized at diagnosis has a 100% relative 5-year survival rate as compared with a 30% rate for patients diagnosed with distant metastases. What are the symptoms of prostate cancer?
In its early stages, prostate cancer may not cause any symptoms. But as the cancer grows, the following symptoms may appear: frequent urination (especially at night), problems with urination (inability, weakened flow, pain, burning, etc.), painful ejaculation, blood in urine or semen and/or frequent pain or stiffness in the back, hips or upper thighs. These symptoms are also common in men with benign enlargement of the prostate gland. How is prostate cancer diagnosed?
Ideally, prostate cancer should be detected when it is so small that there are no symptoms. Early detection can be achieved by a digital rectal examination (DRE) and a PSA test. A biopsy is recommended if either the DRE and/or the PSA are suggestive of cancer (hardness, irregularity, or a mass on DRE, or a steadily rising PSA level, or a PSA level that is higher than the median level for the age group, particularly if the PSA level is higher than expected for the size of the prostate gland, or if the percentage of free PSA is 10% or lower). The biopsy procedure uses an ultrasonic probe that is inserted into the rectum and a biopsy needle that is directed into various regions of the prostate gland. This procedure, performed under local anesthesia, is relatively painless and does not require hospitalization. Once prostate cancer has been diagnosed by a prostate biopsy, the physician seeks to determine the extent of the cancer (i.e., the "T" stage) and whether it has spread to the lymph nodes and/or the bones. The clinical T stage is determined by the DRE and can be divided into the following categories: T1a: Cancer is found incidentally during a transurethral resection (TURP) for benign prostatic enlargement. Cancer is low grade (Gleason sum of 6 or less) and present in less than 5% of the tissue removed T1b: Cancer Cancer is found after a simple prostatectomy for presumed benign enlargement but is high grade (Gleason sum of 7 or more) and/or is present in more than 5% of the tissue removed T1c: Cancer is found by needle biopsy that was done because of PSA abnormalities T2: Doctor can feel the tumor when a digital rectal exam (DRE) is performed but the tumor still appears to be confined to the prostate T2a: Cancer is found in one half or less of only one side (left or right) of the prostate T2b: Cancer is found in more than half of only one side (left or right) of the prostate T2c: Cancer is found in both sides of the prostate T3: Cancer has begun to spread outside the prostate and may involve the seminal vesicles T3a: Cancer extends outside the prostate but not to the seminal vesicles T3b: Cancer has spread to the seminal vesicles T4: Cancer has spread to tissues next to the prostate (other than the seminal vesicles), such as the sphincter, rectum and/or wall of the pelvis To determine if the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes or bones, the physician may order a CT scan of the pelvis, an MRI of the pelvis, and/or a bone scan. In addition to clinical staging, the physician seeks to determine the so-called "aggressiveness" of the cancer. This is done in two ways. The first way is by determining the grade of the cancer; that is, how "aggressive" it looks under the microscope. The most frequently used prostate cancer grading system is the Gleason system. Each area of cancer in the biopsy is assigned a Gleason pattern or grade between 1 and 5. The two most common Gleason grades within a biopsy are added together to give the Gleason "score" which is designated between 2 and 10. Gleason scores of 2 to 4 designate well-differentiated cancer that tends to be slow growing. Gleason scores of 5, 6, or 3+4 =7 (predominately pattern 3 with a lesser amount of pattern 4) are moderately-differentiated, while Gleason scores of 4+3=7 (mostly pattern 4) to Gleason 10 are called poorly differentiated. The second sign of aggressiveness is the PSA level before biopsy. In general PSA levels less than 10 are associated with a high likelihood of organ-confined disease, levels between 10 and 20 are worrisome for more extensive disease, while levels greater than 20 are worrisome for distant metastases, although cure is still sometimes possible. What is a radical prostatectomy?
A radical prostatectomy is the removal of the entire prostate, the seminal vesicles, the tissue immediately surrounding them, and some of their associated pelvic lymph nodes. Because prostate cancer may be scattered throughout the prostate gland in an unpredictable way, the entire prostate must be removed so that cancer cells are not left behind. The pelvic lymph nodes are small oval or round bodies located along blood vessels. They filter lymphatic fluid and are usually one of the early sites of spread of cancer beyond the prostate gland (for prostate cancer, the cascade of cancer spread is usually first to the soft tissues surrounding the prostate capsule, then to the seminal vesicles, then to the lymph nodes, and then to the bones and other organs of the body). There are many other lymph nodes, so the body will not be compromised by the removal of these few lymph nodes. When is surgery the best treatment for prostate cancer?
In general, prostate cancer surgery is best performed in patients with clinical stage T1 or T2 prostate cancer (confined to the prostate gland) and in selected men with clinical stage T3 disease. While there are no absolute cut-offs, men with a PSA level less than 20 and a Gleason score of less than eight have a higher likelihood of cure. In certain circumstances, patients with more serious parameters are offered surgery. Prostate cancer surgery is usually restricted to men who are healthy enough to tolerate a major operation and have a 10-year or more life expectancy. Life expectancy is assessed by both patient age and health. What are some risk factors associated with prostate cancer surgery?
As with all operations, there may be complications of radical prostatectomy; some occurring early and some late. Bleeding can occur in any major operation. Some surgeons recommend that the patient donate his own blood before surgery or receive a blood-stimulating hormone (Epogen, EPO) to boost his blood count and reduce the risk of needing a blood transfusion from an anonymous donor. Surgical injury to adjacent structures, such as the rectum and ureter (tube that drains urine from the kidney to the bladder) is uncommon. Infection in the incision or urinary tract is also rare. Deep venous thrombosis (blood clots in the leg veins or pelvic veins) and pulmonary embolism (blood clot that goes to the lung) occur in approximately 1-2% of patients after radical prostatectomy. Injury to nearby structures like the rectum and ureters (tubes that drain urine from the kidney to the bladder) is uncommon. Infection in the incision site and/or urinary tract is also rare. Lastly, deep venous thrombosis (blood clot) and pulmonary embolism (blood clot that goes to the lung) occur in approximately 2% of patients after radical retropubic prostatectomy. Long-term complications after surgery may include urinary incontinence (urine leakage) and erectile dysfunction (impotence). Short-term incontinence after radical prostatectomy is common. Many men will require a protective pad for several weeks to months after surgery. Fortunately, most men will ultimately recover urinary control. Long-term (after 1 year) incontinence is rare with occurrence in less than 5-10 percent of all surgical cases. However, when it does occur, there are procedures that can solve the problem. Erection of the penis occurs because of the stimulation through the nerves that run adjacent to the prostate and send signals to dilate the blood vessels in the penis, allowing it to fill with blood and become rigid. The two nerve bundles responsible for erection run only a few millimeters away from the area where prostate cancer most commonly arises. Although preserving these nerves at the time of surgery is usually possible, it is not always wise. The less tissue removed around the prostate, the greater the chance that cancer cells will remain behind. Since the primary goal of the operation is to remove all of the cancer, one or both of these nerves sometimes have to be completely or partially sacrificed. Unless both nerves are sacrificed, the chance of recovering erectile function exists, but recovery may be slow. The average time until recovery of erections sufficient for intercourse is 4 to 24 months, but in some men it takes longer. Erections usually improve with time, for as long as 2 to 3 years or more after the operation, because some of the traumatized nerve fibers recover slowly. Of course, the operation does not make erections better than they were before surgery, even if both nerves are spared. Even with full recovery, most men find the erections are less rigid and durable than before surgery. Younger men recover sooner, and those with stronger erections before the operation have a better chance of recovery than if the erections were weak preoperatively. Postoperative erectile dysfunction can also be treated by pills (Viagra, etc.), vacuum pumps, urethral suppositories (MUSE), or penile injections (Tri-Mix or Bi-Mix, etc.). Also, surgical implantation of a penile prosthesis is an option for men who do not wish to use these lesser measures. What are the different types of prostate cancer surgery?
Retropubic prostatectomy: During this procedure, the surgeon makes an incision through the lower abdomen that is about 4 inches in length. The surgeon removes the prostate, surrounding tissue and pelvic lymph nodes (if necessary). Perineal prostatectomy: With this surgical approach, the surgeon removes the prostate through an incision in the skin between the scrotum and the anus. In general, perineal surgery is a little easier on the patient, but nerve-sparing is more difficult to achieve, and this approach may be less efficient if the lymph nodes need to be removed or examined before the prostate is removed. Laparoscopic prostatectomy is a type of 'minimally-invasive' surgery that uses six 1-inch incisions, with one being slightly larger in order to extract the prostate gland from the abdomen. Through the small incisions surgical instruments, including a camera, are inserted. The camera allows the surgeon to view inside the abdomen and perform the surgery. Robotic-assisted laparoscopic prostatectomy is similar to laparoscopic prostatectomy, but rather than the surgeon directly holding the instruments, a robot serves as an interface between the surgeon and the instruments. It is claimed that laparoscopic and robotic surgery is less invasive and that with the smaller incisions, the patient may experience less pain and scarring and a faster recovery than with the retropubic approach. However, in another sense, it is more invasive, because the laparoscopic and robotic operations are performed within the peritoneal cavity (inside the belly where the intestines, major blood vessels, and ureters are located). Thus, the complications of laparoscopic prostatectomy are often more serious, and studies have shown that the recovery time is the same for the laparoscopic and retropubic approaches. Laparoscopic and robotic prostatectomy is difficult to learn and requires special training to perform the operation successfully. Long-term outcomes of laparoscopic or robotic prostatectomy are not yet available as they are for open prostatectomy, and it is uncertain whether the simultaneous preservation of potency and continence with complete removal of the cancer can be achieved as consistently as with the classic radical retropubic prostatectomy. Recent studies have suggested that cancer recurrence rates are higher, urinary continence rates are lower, and patient satisfaction are significantly less with laparoscopic and robotic surgery. What can be expected after surgical treatment?
At the time of surgery, after the prostate has been removed, the urinary tract is reconstructed by approximating the bladder to the urethra with sutures. A urinary catheter is passed through the urethra into the bladder to drain the urine while the new connection between the bladder and urethra (called the "anastomosis") heals. The catheter will remain in place for one to two weeks after the surgery. The catheter is removed on a return visit to the surgeon's clinic, and exercises (called Kegel exercises) are begun by the patient to strengthen the urinary control valve. Urinary control (continence) can be immediate but usually takes several weeks to months to recover. One or two suction drains are left beside the bladder, deep in the pelvic cavity, and brought out through the lower abdomen to drain any fluid that might accumulate in the surgical wound. They help to decrease the risk of infection and pressure from fluid in the operated area. The drains are usually removed before you are discharged from the hospital. While in the hospital, the patient begins his physical recovery. After the operation you will be in the Post-Anesthesia Care Unit (PACU) for a recovery period of several hours. He can have ice chips and water as soon as he is are fully awake. Family members may also visit in the PACU. Fluids are given to you through an intravenous (IV) line in a vein. The IV line will remain in place until the patient can tolerate fluids and food by mouth which usually occurs on the first or second day after surgery. Most people do not pass flatus (intestinal gas) for one to two days and do not have a bowel movement until the third day after surgery, depending on how much narcotic pain medication they have had. The goal during the first few days after your operation will be to prevent the breathing and circulation problems that can develop after any surgery. You must walk at least 100 yards three to four times a day to help your breathing and circulation. The catheter is removed on a return visit to the surgeon's clinic, and exercises to strengthen the urinary control valve (called Kegel exercises) are begun by the patient after the catheter has been removed. The surgeon reviews the final pathology report of the removed prostate and (if applicable) the lymph nodes. Based on this "final pathology," a follow-up plan is developed. If the pathology report is favorable, the follow-up plan entails regular visits to a physician and a regular PSA test (every 6-12 months). The post-operative PSA level should be in the "undetectable" range (less than 0.1 ng/ml). If the pathology report shows adverse features (e.g., cancer at the surgical margin or spread of cancer through the capsule of the prostate into the surrounding tissues, seminal vesicles, or lymph nodes) additional therapy may be recommended or at least considered as an option. This may include postoperative radiation therapy and/or hormone treatment beginning 2 to 4 months after surgery. Erectile rehabilitation programs are usually encouraged beginning shortly after surgery. In general, pills are not very effective until spontaneous erections begin to return. Vacuum pumps draw blood from the veins rather than the arteries into the penis and therefore provide less oxygenation to the tissues. Intraurethral suppositories may be inefficiently absorbed through the urethra and sometimes cause urethral burning. Intracavernosal injections of vasodilators usually provide immediate rigid erections with well-oxygenated arterial blood, but if too large a dose is given, it might induce an erection that will not go away (priapism) and require a visit to the emergency room for treatment. There is a risk of developing curvature of the penis (Peyronies' disease) due to scarring from repeatedly injecting into the same site or from kinking or buckling of the penis while having intercourse without a sufficiently rigid erection. The ability to experience climax (orgasm) is not lost after radical prostatectomy, even in the absence of an erection. However, with orgasm, there is very little (if any) ejaculate (usually some lubricating mucus from urethral glands, and sometimes urine, if urinary sphincter function has not fully recovered). Because the prostate and seminal vesicles have been removed and the vas deferens have been divided, the patient is no longer able to initiate a pregnancy through sexual intercourse (but fertility is still possible through artificial insemination techniques). Frequently asked questions: When can I resume normal activity after the surgery?
The time varies, but usually it is between three to six weeks. Will I know if I am cured after surgery?
Not with absolute certainty. The likelihood of cure varies, depending on the severity of the cancer removed. In general, one must have PSA test values of less than 0.1 ng/ml for 10 years before cure is virtually certain. I worry about potency but I am most afraid of incontinence. What are the odds?
That depends mostly on the surgeon and his/her experience. But age and your current level of continence and potency are also key factors. Usually, incontinence is temporary and does not last long although it can persist for as much as six to twelve months. With more experienced surgeons, the risk of permanent incontinence is rare after prostate cancer surgery. Where can I get more information? Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) AUA Guidelines Patient Guides: Prostate Cancer Awareness for Men
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Reviewed July, 2009
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abdomen:  |
| | Also referred to as the belly. It is the part of the body that contains all of the internal structures between the chest and the pelvis. |
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| anesthesia: |
| | Loss of sensation in any part of the body induced by a numbing or paralyzing agent. Often used during surgery to put a person to sleep. |
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| anus: |
| | Opening at the end of the digestive tract where feces (stool) leave the body. The final two inches of the rectum. |
| |
| arterial: |
| | Relating to, affecting or used in arteries. |
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| arteries: |
| | Blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to various parts of the body.
|
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| artificial insemination: |
| | The clinical insertion of sperm in the woman's uterus. |
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| benign: |
| | Not malignant; not cancerous. |
| |
| biopsy: |
| | A procedure in which a tiny piece of a body part (tissue sample), such as the kidney or bladder, is removed (with a needle or during surgery) for examination under a microscope; to determine if cancer or other abnormal cells are present. |
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| bladder: |
| | The bladder is a thick muscular balloon-shaped pouch in which urine is stored before being discharged through the urethra. |
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| blood transfusion: |
| | The transfer of blood from a healthy donor into the bloodstream of somebody who has lost blood or has a blood disorder. |
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| bone scan: |
| | A nuclear image of the skeleton. |
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| bowel: |
| | Another word for intestines or colon. |
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| bowel movement: |
| | The act of passing feces (stool) through the anus. |
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| cancer: |
| | An abnormal growth that can invade nearby structures and spread to other parts of the body and may be a threat to life. |
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| catheter: |
| | A thin tube that is inserted through the urethra into the bladder to allow urine to drain or for performance of a procedure or test, such as insertion of a substance during a bladder X-ray. |
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| continence: |
| | The ability to control the timing of urination or a bowel movement. |
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| CT scan: |
| | Also known as computerized tomography, computerized axial tomography or CT scan. A diagnostic imaging procedure that uses a combination of X-rays and computer technology to produce cross-sectional images of the body. Shows detailed images of any part of the body, including bones, muscles, fat and organs. CT scans are more detailed than general X-rays. |
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| diagnosis: |
| | The process by which a doctor determines what disease or condition a patient has by studying the patient's symptoms and medical history, and analyzing any tests performed (e.g., blood tets, urine tests, brain scans, etc.). |
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| digital rectal examination: |
| | Also known as DRE. Insertion of a gloved, lubricated finger into the rectum to feel the prostate and check for any abnormalities. |
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| dilate: |
| | Widen. |
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| dilator: |
| | An instrument to stretch body tissues and enlarge an opening, passage or canal. |
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| DRE: |
| | Also known as digital rectal examination. Insertion of a gloved, lubricated finger into the rectum to feel the prostate and check for any abnormalities. |
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| ejaculate: |
| | The fluid that is expelled from a man's penis during sexual climax (orgasm). To release semen from the penis during an orgasm. |
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| ejaculation: |
| | Release of semen from the penis during sexual climax (orgasm). |
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| erectile: |
| | Capable of filling with blood under pressure, swelling and becoming stiff. |
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| erectile dysfunction: |
| | Also known as ED or impotence. The inability to get or maintain an erection for satisfactory sexual intercourse. Also called impotence. |
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| erection: |
| | Enlargement and hardening of the penis caused by increased blood flow into the penis and decreased blood flow out of it as a result of sexual excitement.
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| fertility: |
| | The ability to conceive and have children. |
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| free PSA: |
| | Prostate-specific antigen is in the blood, but not attached to any proteins. |
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| gas: |
| | Material that results from: swallowed air, air produced from certain foods or that is created when bacteria in the colon break down waste material. Gas that is released from the rectum is called flatulence. |
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| gene: |
| | The basic unit capable of transmitting characteristics from one generation to the next.
|
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| genetic: |
| | Relating to the origin of something. |
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| gland: |
| | A mass of cells or an organ that removes substances from the bloodstream and excretes them or secretes them back into the blood with a specific physiological purpose. |
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| Gleason score: |
| | Used in the Gleason grade system which is the most common system used in the United States to grade the appearance of prostate cancer tissue. |
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| hormone: |
| | A natural chemical produced in one part of the body and released into the blood to trigger or regulate particular functions of the body. Antidiuretic hormone tells the kidneys to slow down urine production. |
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| impotence: |
| | Also called erectile dysfunction or ED. The inability to get or maintain an erection for sexual activity. |
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| incision: |
| | Surgical cut for entering the body to perform an operation. |
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| incontinence: |
| | Loss of bladder or bowel control; the accidental loss of urine or feces. |
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| infection: |
| | A condition resulting from the presence of bacteria or other microorganisms. |
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| insemination: |
| | Insertion of sperm into the woman's uterus. |
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| intestine: |
| | The part of the digestive system between the stomach and the anus that digests and absorbs food and water. |
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| intravenous: |
| | Also referred to as IV. Existing or occurring inside a vein. |
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| invasive: |
| | Having or showing a tendency to spread from the point of origin to adjacent tissue, as some cancers do. Involving cutting or puncturing the skin or inserting instruments into the body. |
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| ions: |
| | Electrically charged atoms. |
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| IV: |
| | Also referred to as intravenous. Existing or occurring inside a vein. |
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| kidney: |
| | One of two bean-shaped organs that filter wastes from the blood and discharge these waste products in urine. The kidneys are located on either side at the level of the 12th ribs toward the back. The kidneys send urine to the bladder through tubes called ureters. |
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| laparoscopic: |
| | Using an instrument in the shape of a tube that is inserted through the abdominal wall to give an examining doctor a view of the internal organs. |
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| local anesthesia: |
| | Loss of sensation only in one part of the body induced by application of an anesthetic agent. |
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| lymph: |
| | Fluid containing white cells. It can transport bacteria, viruses and cancer cells. |
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| lymph nodes: |
| | Small rounded masses of tissue distributed along the lymphatic system most prominently in the armpit, neck and groin areas. Lymph nodes produce special cells that help fight off foreign agents invading the body. Lymph nodes also act as traps for infectious agents. |
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| malignancy: |
| | A cancerous growth. |
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| malignant: |
| | A cancerous growth that is likely to grow and spread which can cause serious disablement or death. |
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| metastases: |
| | The spread of a cancerous tumor to another part of the body. |
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| mortality: |
| | The state of being certain to die. |
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| MRI: |
| | Also referred to a magnetic resonance imaging. A diagnostic procedure that uses a combination of large magnets, radiofrequencies and a computer to produce detailed images of organs and structures within the body. |
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| open prostatectomy: |
| | A procedure whereby an incision is made through the skin above the bladder to remove the central part of the prostate that causes the blockage. |
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| orgasm: |
| | The climax of sexual excitement, consisting of intense muscle tightening around the genital area experienced as a pleasurable wave of tingling sensations through parts of the body.
|
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| pathology: |
| | The process of a particular disease. Scientific study of the nature, origin, progress and cause of disease. |
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| pelvic: |
| | Relating to, involving or located in or near the pelvis. |
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| pelvis: |
| | The bowl-shaped bone that supports the spine and holds up the digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs. The legs connect to the body at the pelvis.
|
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| penis: |
| | The male organ used for urination and sex. |
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| perineal: |
| | Related to the area between the anus and the scrotum in males and the area between the anus and the vagina in females. |
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| peritoneal cavity: |
| | The space enclosed by the peritoneum, the membrane that lines the cavity of the abdomen. |
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| postoperative: |
| | Occurring after a surgical operation. |
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| pregnancy: |
| | The condition of being pregnant. |
| |
| priapism: |
| | A persistent erection of the penis, accompanied by pain and tenderness; resulting from a pathologic condition rather than sexual desire.
|
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| probe: |
| | Small device for measuring and testing. |
| |
| prostate: |
| | A walnut-shaped gland in men that surrounds the urethra at the neck of the bladder. The prostate supplies fluid that goes into semen.
|
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| prostatectomy: |
| | Surgical procedure for the partial or complete removal of the prostate. |
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| prostatic: |
| | Pertaining to the prostate. |
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| prosthesis: |
| | Artificial body part. |
| |
| PSA: |
| | Also referred to as prostate-specific antigen. A protein made only by the prostate gland. High levels of PSA in the blood may be a sign of prostate cancer. |
| |
| PSA test: |
| | Also referred to as prostate-specific antigen test. A blood test used to help detect prostate cancer. |
| |
| pulmonary embolism: |
| | A condition in which a blood clot (called an embolus) travels through the bloodstream and lodges in an artery of the lung. |
| |
| radiation: |
| | Also referred to as radiotherapy. X-rays or radioactive substances used in treatment of cancer.
|
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| radiation therapy: |
| | Also referred to as radiotherapy or radiation. X-rays or radioactive substances used in treatment of cancer.
|
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| radical: |
| | Complete removal. |
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| radical prostatectomy: |
| | Surgical removal of the prostate and seminal vesicles. |
| |
| rectal: |
| | Relating to, involving or in the rectum. |
| |
| rectum: |
| | The lower part of the large intestine, ending in the anal opening. |
| |
| resection: |
| | The surgical removal of a portion of a body part. |
| |
| retropubic prostatectomy: |
| | Involves the removal of obstructing prostate tissue through a cut below the belly button. |
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| scrotum: |
| | Also referred to as the scrotal sac. The sac of tissue that hangs below the penis and contains the testicles. |
| |
| semen: |
| | Also known as seminal fluid or ejaculate fluid. Thick, whitish fluid produced by glands of the male reproductive system, that carries the sperm (reproductive cells) through the penis during ejaculation. |
| |
| seminal fluid: |
| | Also known as semen or ejaculate fluid. The fluid released at orgasm which contains sperm and secretions from the prostate. |
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| seminal vesicle: |
| | Two pouch-like glands behind the bladder. They produce a sugar-rich fluid called fructose that provides sperm with a source of energy that helps sperm move. The fluid of the seminal vesicles makes up most of the volume of a man's ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate. |
| |
| sperm: |
| | Also referred to as spermatozoa. Male germ cells (gametes or reproductive cells) that are produced by the testicles and that are capable of fertilizing the female partner's eggs. Cells resemble tadpoles if seen by the naked eye. |
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| sphincter: |
| | A round muscle that opens and closes to let fluid or other matter pass into or out of an organ. Sphincter muscles keep the bladder closed until it is time to urinate. |
| |
| stage: |
| | Classification of the progress of a disease. |
| |
| stent: |
| | With regard to treating ureteral stones, a tube inserted through the urethra and bladder and into the ureter. Stents are used to aid treatment in various ways, such as preventing stone fragments from blocking the flow of urine. |
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| suture: |
| | Surgical seam where a wound has been closed or tissues have been joined. |
| |
| testicle: |
| | Also known as testis. Either of the paired, egg-shaped glands contained in a pouch (scrotum) below the penis. They produce sperm and the male hormone testosterone. |
| |
| tissue: |
| | Group of cells in an organism that are similar in form and function. |
| |
| transfusion: |
| | Transfer of whole blood, blood components or bone marrow from a healthy donor into the bloodstream of somebody who has lost blood or who has a blood disorder. |
| |
| transurethral: |
| | Through the urethra. Several transurethral procedures are used for treatment of BPH. (See TUIP, TUMT, TUNA or TURP.) |
| |
| transurethral resection: |
| | Surgery performed with a special instrument inserted through the urethra. |
| |
| tumor: |
| | An abnormal mass of tissue or growth of cells. |
| |
| TURP: |
| | Also referred to as transurethral resection of the prostate. Surgical procedure where a lighted tube with an attached electrical loop is inserted through the urethra into the prostate. Serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic role in the treatment of bladder cancer. |
| |
| ultrasonic probe: |
| | Thin, tube-like instrument that generates high frequency sound waves that scan surfaces of tissues/organs to detect abnormalities. |
| |
| ureter: |
| | One of two tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. |
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| ureters: |
| | Tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. |
| |
| urethra: |
| | A tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. In males, the urethra serves as the channel through which semen is ejaculated and it extends from the bladder to the tip of the penis. In females, the urethra is much shorter than in males. |
| |
| urethral: |
| | Relating to the urethra, the tube tha carries urine from the bladder to outside the body. |
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| urge: |
| | Strong desire to urinate. |
| |
| urinary: |
| | Relating to urine. |
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| urinary continence: |
| | Ability to control urination. |
| |
| urinary incontinence: |
| | Inability to control urination. |
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| urinary tract: |
| | The system that takes wastes from the blood and carries them out of the body in the form of urine. Passageway from the kidneys to the ureters, bladder and urethra. |
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| urination: |
| | The passing of urine. |
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| urine: |
| | Liquid waste product filtered from the blood by the kidneys, stored in the bladder and expelled from the body through the urethra by the act of urinating (voiding). About 96 percent of which is water and the rest waste products. |
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| vas: |
| | Also referred to as vas deferens. The cordlike structure that carries sperm from the testicle to the urethra. |
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| vas deferens: |
| | Also referred to as vas. The cordlike structure that carries sperm from the testicle to the ejaculatory duct, whicn in turn carries it to the urethra. |
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| vasodilators: |
| | A nerve or drug that causes vasodilatation, the dilation of a blood vessel. |
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